FIGURES OF SPEECH
Definition:
·
Figure of
Speech is a word or group of words that describes one thing in terms of another
and is not meant to be understood as literally true.
·
A figure
of speech is a word or phrase that departs from everyday literal language for
the sake of comparison, emphasis, clarity, or freshness.
·
Also known as, rhetorical figure,
metaphorical language/ literary devices
Used
well, figures of speech greatly enhance your fiction, and can
be a very economical way of getting an image or a point across, but used
incorrectly, they will confuse the reader. The special
emphasis is typically accomplished by the user's conscious deviation from the
strict literal sense of a word, or from the more commonly used form of word
order or sentence construction. From ancient times to the present, such
figurative locutions have been extensively employed by orators and writers to
strengthen and embellish their styles of speech and composition. A number of
the more widely used figures of speech, some of which are also called tropes, follow.
1) Metaphor is
a figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things
without using the words “like or as”. A metaphor suggests that one thing is
another thing, or is equal to another thing. It uses a word or phrase denoting
one kind of idea or object in place of another word or phrase for the purpose
of suggesting a likeness between the two. Metaphors create vivid descriptions
with few words, as the subject of the comparison takes on the qualities of the
thing with which it is compared.
·
'He was a lion in the fight'.
·
In the biblical Book of Psalms, the
writer speaks of God's law as
·
“A light to his feet and a lamp to
his path.”
·
“The LORD is my shepherd”
2) A simile is
a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things and uses
the words "like," "as," "than" or
"resembles". Or Simile is specific comparison by
means of the words “like” or “as” between two kinds of ideas or
objects. Similes make descriptions vivid by comparing their subjects
with known events or things. Effective similes help readers visualize what is
being described. Examples,
·
As cool as a cucumber',
·
'As white as snow',
·
“Christianity shone like a
beacon in the black night of paganism”
3) Irony: It
is the expression of ideas which are exactly opposite to the implied meaning.
Or Irony is a disagreement or
incongruity between what is said and what is understood, or what is expected
and what actually occurs. Irony can be used intentionally or can happen
unintentionally. Authors can use irony to make their audience stop and think
about what has just been said, or to emphasize a central idea. The audience's
role in realizing the difference between what is said and what is normal or
expected is essential to the successful use of irony.
·
'A student of psychology going insane',
·
'A bank lends you money provided you
show that it's not needed'
There are three scenarios in which
irony occurs.
a. Verbal
irony is when the intended meaning of the statement or work is
different (often the opposite of) what the statement or work literary says. For
Example, Ibsen’s An Enemy of the People is
ironically used since Dr. Stockman who is declared an enemy, is in really
sense, and is a friend of the people.
b. Situational
Irony occurs when what happens is contrary to what is expected; or the
actual outcome of a situation is the opposite of what is expected. For example
·
The son of the English teacher fails
the English Exam.
·
The daughter of a rich
merchant is expelled from school for lack of school fees of 20,000/=.
c. Dramatic
Irony occurs when events or facts not known to the character on stage
in a fictional work, are known to another character and the audience or reader.
E.g. Oedipus the King.
4) Personification:
It is a representation of abstract ideas or inanimate objects as having human
attributes or qualities. Or Personification is the representation
of inanimate objects or abstract ideas as living beings. Personification
connects readers with the object that is personified. Personification can make
descriptions of non-human entities more vivid, or can help readers understand,
sympathize with, or react emotionally to non-human characters.
“Necessity is the mother of
invention
“the mountains cried, the valleys
wept, and the hills wailed all mourning the death of Nyerere.
5) Apostrophe:
It is a direct address to the dead or an inanimate object creating an emotional
surge. In Apostrophe,an actor turns from the audience, or a
writer from readers, to address a person who usually is either absent or
deceased, an inanimate object, or an abstract idea. As in John Donne’s “Death
Be Not Proud”
A. 'Caesar,
only if you were alive'
6) Rhetorical
question is the act of asking questions not to gain information but
just for emphasis. No answer, in fact, is expected by the speaker. The device
is illustrated in the following series of sentences:
“Did you help me when I needed help? Did you once
offer to intercede in my behalf? Did you do anything to lessen my load?”
7) Hyperbole/overstatement is
a figure of speech in which the truth is exaggerated for emphasis or for
humorous effect. In exaggeration a person or thing is depicted as being better
or worse, or larger or smaller, than is actually the case. It is, used
often to ridicule, create humour or any drastic emotional appeal.
·
'The waves rose as high as the
mountains,'
·
'I am so hungry that I can
eat a whole cow'
·
'She wept and wept until there was a
sea of tears'.
8) Litotes/ understatement:
It is an understated expression when the actual idea to be expressed is quite
significant. It is like downplaying an idea when it seems to be the best
possible course of action or description. Statements such as,
·
'I was not feeling
unhappy”. Meaning I was feeling happy
·
“The English poet Thomas Gray showed
no inconsiderable powers as a prose writer, “meaning that
Gray was in fact a very good prose writer
·
I am not unmindful- meaning
I mind
9) Euphemism, this
is the substitution of an offensive/unpleasant term or phrase by the one that
has pleasant associations, as in the use of “lavatory” or “rest room” for
“toilet,” and “pass away” for “die.”
10) Metonymy is
a figure of speech that associates the name of one thing with that of something
else. This is a word that substitutes for an object, the name of an attribute
or concept associated to that object. The use of ‘crown’ for ‘king’ or
for the government ruled by a king is an example of a metonym.
o
“We waited hopelessly for two sunsets”
§ “Sunsets”
here implies two days,
o
“He has a good name in
our society.” Or,
§ “They spoilt
his name.” “Name” refers to reputation
o
“A press conference by the “Statehouse”.
Here,statehouse refers to the officials of the Statehouse who will
be holding the press conference.
§ A metonym is
not necessarily one word. As in a hotel -“Room 44 needs a
bottle of champagne” “Room 44” here refers to the customer who is in
that room.
o
“The hostess kept a good
table,” when “good food” is implied.
11) Synecdoche:
is a figure of speech in which the whole is represented by a part or a part by
the whole is called as synecdoche. Example
'He has several mouths to feed'. Here mouths represent
people.
“50 head of cattle; “head” is used to
mean whole animals,
“The president's administration contained the best “brains”
in the country; “brains” is used for intellectually brilliant
persons.
12) Onomatopoeia, imitation
of natural sounds by words. Examples in English are the italicized words in the
phrases
“The humming bee,”
“The cackling hen,”
“The whizzing arrow,”
“The buzzing saw.”
The Hissing snake,
The Splashing water,
The Bang of a door.
13) Oxymoron: This
is a figure of speech which includes words or ideas opposite in meaning placed
one after the other. Oxymoron combines two seemingly contradictory or
incongruous words.
§
·
'True lies',
·
'Open secret',
·
'Pretty ugly face',
·
'Feeling alone in
a crowd’,
·
Living deaths,
·
Dear wounds,
·
Fair storms,
·
Silent noise
·
Freezing fires
·
Pain for pleasure
·
Clearly confused
·
Cruel kindness
·
Deafening silence
·
Only choice
·
Random order
·
Alone together
·
Awfully good
·
Dark light
·
Light darkness
·
Appear invisible
·
Goodbye reception.
·
Growing smaller
·
True myth
·
Unpopular celebrity
·
Worthless gold
·
Sad joy
·
Sweet agony
·
Daydream in the night
14) Paradox, this
is a figure of speech which includes a statement or sentiment that appears
contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Simply put it is a statement
that seems to contradict itself but is, nevertheless, true. These
statements or assertions, according to logic, cannot be true, yet the figure
links them in a way that creates a new meaning, one that defies logic but works
on situation. Example of paradox is found in Martin Luther’s speech “I
Have a Dream”
“..The Negro is still languished in the corners of
American society and finds himself an exile in his own land”
In the above sentence, logically speaking, one cannot
be in exile while he is still in his own land, as the true meaning of the word
exile is. But the situation described, is the one that makes us see as if the
Negros are in exile, since they have nothing to enjoy in their own land.
15) Climax, It
is the arrangement of ideas in an increasing order of their importance. It
emphasizes the meaning in a clear and effective way. Or it is the arrangement
of words, clauses, or sentences in the order of their importance, the least
forcible coming first and the others rising in power until the last, as in the
following sentences:
§ “It is an
outrage to bind a Roman citizen; it is a crime to scourge him; it is almost
parricide to kill him; but to crucify him—what shall I say of this?”
§ 'He
came, he saw, he conquered, 'her village, her state, her nation were her
pride',
§ 'Eat,
drink and sleep' and so on.
16) Anticlimax is
a sequence of ideas that abruptly diminish in dignity or importance at the end
of a sentence or passage, generally for satirical effect. The following
sentence contains an illustration of anticlimax:
“Among the great achievements of Benito Mussolini's
regime were the revival of a strong national consciousness, the expansion of
the Italian Empire, and the running of the trains on time.”
17) Antithesis is
a juxtaposition of two words, phrases, clauses, or sentences contrasted or
opposed in meaning in such a way as to give emphasis to contrasting ideas. An
example of antithesis is the following line by the English poet Alexander Pope:
“To err is human, to forgive divine.” “The LORD gave and the LORD has taken
away.
18) Conceit, it
is an elaborate, extended and sometimes surprising comparison between things
that, at first sight, do not have much in common. It is also defined as an
elaborate, often extravagant metaphor or simile making an analogy between
totally dissimilar things. The term originally meant “concept” or “idea.” The
use of conceits is especially characteristic of 17th-century English
metaphysical poetry. An example occurs in the poem “A Valediction: Forbidding
Mourning,” by the English poet John Donne, in which two lovers' souls are
compared to the legs of drawing compasses.
19) Allusion is
a literary device in which the writer or speaker refers either directly or
indirectly to a famous person, event, place or thing in history, religion,
mythology, politics, sports, science or to a work of art or literature.
Allusion connects the content of a text with the larger world. Allusion calls
to mind the ideas and emotions associated with a well-known event or published
work. Those ideas and emotions then contribute to what the author conveys. As
in Martin Luther’s speech
"Four score and seven years ago our fathers
brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and
dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."
20) Parallel
structure /parallelism / Parallel constructionis a repetition
of the same pattern of words or phrases within a sentence or passage to show
that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. Parallel structure
helps to organize ideas, making a text or speech easier to understand. Parallel
structure can also create a satisfying rhythm in the language an author
uses. In this literary device, the idea to be stated is repeated in
some other form to emphasize the articulation.
'She cried, she wept but he was unmoved',
'Show me your strength, your stamina, your energy only
where it is needed'
21) Anaphora Also
called epanaphora, the repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of
successive phrases for rhetorical or poetic effect, as in Lincoln's
"We cannot dedicate-
We cannot consecrate-
We cannot hallow
this ground"
I am a true Acoli
I am not a half-caste
I am not a slave girl
22) Imagery This is
a figure of speech which creates mental pictures that appeal to readers, five
senses. Writers use sensory details to make readers imagine how
things look, feel, smell, sound and taste. There are different types of images
depending on the five senses.
o Visual image-
this is an image of sight e.g.
Greater than the Rift-Valley;
Camera film to light, coils of
the greatest python
Stronger than the blows
of the sea
When the hurricane is
at its height.
o Organic image -this
is an image of feeling
Dying in agony
More painful than
the yell
o Audio image –
this is an image of sound
The yell of
a woman
I plead the cry of
the nation
The screams of
a man
o Kinetic image -this
is an image of motion.
Is faster than
camera film
But as slow as
tropism
I declare running Better
than walking
o Tactile image -
this is an image of touch
As it falls on the seemingly soft soil
Standing hard and ready..
·
Olfactory image – this
is an image of smell.
a stinking room
o Gustatory image. This
is an Image of taste
In search of sweetness
o Thermal image this is
an image of heat.
23) Anadiplosis; the
repetition in which the last expression of one statement becomes the first
expression in the following statement. As in the poem “Africa” by David Diop
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery
The slavery of your children
24) Symbolism is
a literary device that uses one object to stand for something else
or to mean something else. Actions can also be symbolic, such as washing hands
to indicate non-involvement. Some symbols are universal, with
generally accepted meanings, such as a crown to mean superiority or the colour
red to mean danger. Symbols, especially specific ones, often mean more than one
thing.
Sunrise symbolizes
the beginning of the struggle and sunsetsymbolizes the end of the
struggle in the poem “Sunrise”
25) Pun - It
is a humorous play on two or more meanings of the same word or on two different
words with the same sound. It is also understood as a play on the multiple
meanings of the word or on two words that sound alike but have different
meanings. It uses words that have similar or identical sounds but very
different meanings. Quite often it is used to pass a witty remark or bring
about a sarcastic effect. Examples are,
"It is better to have loved a short person and
lost, than never to have loved A TALL."
'I KNEAD the dough so that I can eat',
Another good pun is found in the
last but one line of Shakespeare’s “When My Love Swears That She Is Made of
Truth.” He says;
‘Therefore, I LIE with her and she
with me’ Shakespeare Sonnet 138
26) Allegory is
a form of extended metaphor, in which
objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings
that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral,
social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of
abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy.
Thus an allegory is
a story with two levels of meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.
A more modern example of allegory is George Orwell’sAnimal Farm,
which on the surface level is about a group of animals who take over their farm
but on the deeper level is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the
shortcomings of the Communism.
27) Anastrophe:
Also known as inversion, it is a sentence or a poetic expression which reverses
or changes the order of words for greater emphasis. The following are examples
of anastrophe.
'Ten thousand saw I at a glance'
instead of “I saw ten thousand at a glance”
‘Forward they go” which is not a
normal English structure of SVA. ‘They go forward’
‘And away they go’ instead of ‘and
they go away’
‘While your hive they plunder’
instead of ‘while they plunder your hive’.
28) Satire:
is a literary technique which principally ridicules its subject which includes
individuals, organization or states often as an intended means of provoking or
preventing changes. Satire is any piece of writing that uses devices such as
irony. It is a text or performance that uses irony, derision or wit to expose
or attack human vice, foolishness or stupidity.
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